How to Write a Good Project Report

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General considerations:

Research papers usually have five chapters with well-established sections in each chapter. Readers of the paper will be looking for these chapters and sections so you should not deviate from the standard format unless you are specifically requested to do so by the research sponsor.

Most research studies begin with a written proposal. Again, nearly all proposals follow the same format. In fact, the proposal is identical to the first three chapters of the final paper except that it's writtten in future tense. In the proposal, you might say something like "the researchers will secure the sample from ...", while in the final paper, it would be changed to "the researchers secured the sample from ...". Once again, with the exception of tense, the proposal becomes the first three chapters of the final research paper.

The most commonly used style for writing research reports is called "APA" and the rules are described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Any library or bookstore will have it readily available. The style guide contains hundreds of rules for grammar, layout, and syntax. This paper will cover the most important ones.

Avoid the use of first person pronouns. Refer to yourself or the research team in third person. Instead of saying "I will ..." or "We will ...", say something like "The researcher will ..." or "The research team will ...".

A suggestion: Never present a draft (rough) copy of your proposal, thesis, dissertation, or research paper...even if asked. A paper that looks like a draft, will interpreted as such, and you can expect extensive and liberal modifications. Take the time to put your paper in perfect APA format before showing it to anyone else. The payoff will be great since it will then be perceived as a final paper, and there will be far fewer changes.

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Style, layout, and page formatting

Title page
All text on the title page is centered vertically and horizontally. The title page has no page number and it is not counted in any page numbering.

Page layout:

• Left margin: 1½"
  
• Right margin: 1"
  
• Top margin: 1"
  
• Bottom margin: 1"
  

Page numbering:
Pages are numbered at the top right. There should be 1" of white space from the top of the page number to the top of the paper. Numeric page numbering begins with the first page of Chapter 1 (although a page number is not placed on page 1).

Spacing and justification:
All pages are single sided. Text is double-spaced, except for long quotations and the bibliography (which are single-spaced). There is one blank line between a section heading and the text that follows it. Do not right-justify text. Use ragged-right.

Font face and size:
Any easily readable font is acceptable. The font should be 10 points or larger. Generally, the same font must be used throughout the manuscript, except 1) tables and graphs may use a different font, and 2) chapter titles and section headings may use a different font.

References:
APA format should be used to cite references within the paper. If you name the author in your sentence, then follow the authors name with the year in parentheses. For example:

Jones (2004) found that...

If you do not include the authors name as part of the text, then both the author's name and year are enclosed in parentheses. For example:

One researcher (Jones, 2004) found that...

A complete bibliography is attached at the end of the paper. It is double spaced except single-spacing is used for a multiple-line reference. The first line of each reference is indented.

Examples:
Bradburn, N. M., & Mason, W. M. (1964). The effect of question order on response. Journal of Marketing Research 1 (4), 57-61

Bradburn, N. M., & Miles, C. (1979). Vague quantifiers. Public Opinion Quarterly 43 (1), 92-101.

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Outline of chapters and sections

TITLE PAGE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I - Introduction

• Introductory paragraphs
  
• Statement of the problem
  
• Purpose
  
• Significance of the study
  
• Research questions and/or hypotheses
  

CHAPTER II - Background

• Literature review
  
• Definition of terms
  

CHAPTER III - Methodology

• Restate purpose and research questions or null hypotheses
  
• Population and sampling
  
• Instrumentation (include copy in appendix)
  
• Procedure and time frame
  
• Analysis plan (state critical alpha level and type of statistical tests)
  
• Validity and reliability
  
• Assumptions
  
• Scope and limitations
  

CHAPTER IV - Results

CHAPTER V - Conclusions and recommendations

• Summary (of what you did and found)
  
• Discussion (explanation of findings - why do you think you found what you did?)
  
• Recommendations (based on your findings)
  

REFERENCES
APPENDIX

________________________________________

Chapter I - Introduction
Introductory paragraphs
Chapter I begins with a few short introductory paragraphs (a couple of pages at most). The primary goal of the introductory paragraphs is to catch the attention of the readers and to get them "turned on" about the subject. It sets the stage for the paper and puts your topic in perspective. The introduction often contains dramatic and general statements about the need for the study. It uses dramatic illustrations or quotes to set the tone. When writing the introduction, put yourself in your reader's position - would you continue reading?

Statement of the Problem
The statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It is just one sentence (with several paragraphs of elaboration).

You are looking for something wrong or something that needs close attention or existing methods that no longer seem to be working.
Example of a problem statement:
"The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity in middle management workers."

While the problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is always accompanied by several paragraphs that elaborate on the problem. Present persuasive arguments why the problem is important enough to study. Include the opinions of others (politicians, futurists, other professionals). Explain how the problem relates to business, social or political trends by presenting data that demonstrates the scope and depth of the problem. Try to give dramatic and concrete illustrations of the problem. After writing this section, make sure you can easily identify the single sentence that is the problem statement.

Purpose
The purpose is a single statement or paragraph that explains what the study intends to accomplish. A few typical statements are:

The goal of this study is to...
... overcome the difficulty with ...
... discover what ...
... understand the causes or effects of ...
... refine our current understanding of ...
... provide a new interpretation of ...
... understand what makes ___ successful or unsuccessful
Significance of the Study
This section creates a perspective for looking at the problem. It points out how your study relates to the larger issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for your study. It makes the purpose worth pursuing. The significance of the study answers the questions:

Why is your study important?
To whom is it important?
What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?
Research Questions and/or Hypotheses and/or Null Hypotheses
Chapter I lists the research questions (although it is equally acceptable to present the hypotheses or null hypotheses). No elaboration is included in this section. An example would be:

The research questions for this study will be:
1. What are the attitudes of...
2. Is there a significant difference between...
3. Is there a significant relationship between...

________________________________________
Chapter II - Background

Chapter II is a review of the literature. It is important because it shows what previous researchers have discovered. It is usually quite long and primarily depends upon how much research has previously been done in the area you are planning to investigate. If you are planning to explore a relatively new area, the literature review should cite similar areas of study or studies that lead up to the current research. Never say that your area is so new that no research exists. It is one of the key elements that proposal readers look at when deciding whether or not to approve a proposal.

Chapter II should also contain a definition of terms section when appropriate. Include it if your paper uses special terms that are unique to your field of inquiry or that might not be understood by the general reader. "Operational definitions" (definitions that you have formulated for the study) should also be included. An example of an operational definition is: "For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as posttest score minus pretest score".

________________________________________
Chapter III - Methodology

The methodology section describes your basic research plan. It usually begins with a few short introductory paragraphs that restate purpose and research questions. The phraseology should be identical to that used in Chapter I. Keep the wording of your research questions consistent throughout the document.

Population and sampling
The basic research paradigm is:
1) Define the population.
2) Draw a representative sample from the population.
3) Do the research on the sample.
4) Infer your results from the sample back to the population.

As you can see, it all begins with a precise definition of the population. The whole idea of inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire population) depends upon an accurate description of the population. When you've finished your research and you make statements based on the results, who will they apply to? Usually, just one sentence is necessary to define the population. Examples are: "The population for this study is defined as all adult customers who make a purchase in our stores during the sampling time frame", or "...all home owners in the city of Minneapolis", or "...all potential consumers of our product".

While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the sampling procedure needs to be described in extensive detail. There are numerous sampling methods from which to choose. Describe in minute detail, how you will select the sample. Use specific names, places, times, etc. Don't omit any details. This is extremely important because the reader of the paper must decide if your sample will sufficiently represent the population.
Instrumentation

If you are using a survey that was designed by someone else, state the source of the survey. Describe the theoretical constructs that the survey is attempting to measure. Include a copy of the actual survey in the appendix and state that a copy of the survey is in the appendix.

Procedure and time frame
State exactly when the research will begin and when it will end. Describe any special procedures that will be followed (e.g., instructions that will be read to participants, presentation of an informed consent form, etc.).

Analysis plan
The analysis plan should be described in detail. Each research question will usually require its own analysis. Thus, the research questions should be addressed one at a time followed by a description of the type of statistical tests that will be performed to answer that research question. Be specific. State what variables will be included in the analyses and identify the dependent and independent variables if such a relationship exists. Decision making criteria (e.g., the critical alpha level) should also be stated, as well as the computer software that will be used.

Validity and reliability
If the survey you're using was designed by someone else, then describe the previous validity and reliability assessments. When using an existing instrument, you'll want to perform the same reliability measurement as the author of the instrument. If you've developed your own survey, then you must describe the steps you took to assess its validity and a description of how you will measure its reliability.

Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement. Are we measuring what we think we are? There are no statistical tests to measure validity. All assessments of validity are subjective opinions based on the judgment of the researcher. Nevertheless, there are at least three types of validity that should be addressed and you should state what steps you took to assess validity.

Face validity refers to the likelihood that a question will be misunderstood or misinterpreted. Pretesting a survey is a good way to increase the likelihood of face validity. One method of establishing face validity is described here. How to make sure your survey is valid.

Content validity refers to whether an instrument provides adequate coverage of a topic. Expert opinions, literature searches, and pretest open-ended questions help to establish content validity.

Construct validity refers to the theoretical foundations underlying a particular scale or measurement. It looks at the underlying theories or constructs that explain a phenomena. In other words, if you are using several survey items to measure a more global construct (e.g., a subscale of a survey), then you should describe why you believe the items comprise a construct. If a construct has been identified by previous researchers, then describe the criteria they used to validate the construct. A technique known as confirmatory factor analysis is often used to explore how individual survey items contribute to an overall construct measurement.

Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or stability. A measurement that yields consistent results over time is said to be reliable. When a measurement is prone to random error, it lacks reliability.

There are three basic methods to test reliability : test-retest, equivalent form, and internal consistency. Most research uses some form of internal consistency. When there is a scale of items all attempting to measure the same construct, then we would expect a large degree of coherence in the way people answer those items. Various statistical tests can measure the degree of coherence. Another way to test reliability is to ask the same question with slightly different wording in different parts of the survey. The correlation between the items is a measure of their reliability. See: How to test the reliability of a survey.

Assumptions
All research studies make assumptions. The most obvious is that the sample represents the population. Another common assumptions are that an instrument has validity and is measuring the desired constructs. Still another is that respondents will answer a survey truthfully. The important point is for the researcher to state specifically what assumptions are being made.

Scope and limitations
All research studies also have limitations and a finite scope. Limitations are often imposed by time and budget constraints. Precisely list the limitations of the study. Describe the extent to which you believe the limitations degrade the quality of the research.

________________________________________
Chapter IV - Results

Description of the sample
Nearly all research collects various demographic information. It is important to report the descriptive statistics of the sample because it lets the reader decide if the sample is truly representative of the population.

Analyses
The analyses section is cut and dry. It precisely follows the analysis plan laid out in Chapter III. Each research question addressed individually. For each research question:

1) Restate the research question using the exact wording as in Chapter I
2) If the research question is testable, state the null hypothesis
3) State the type of statistical test(s) performed
4) Report the statistics and conclusions, followed by any appropriate table(s)

Numbers and tables are not self-evident. If you use tables or graphs, refer to them in the text and explain what they say. An example is: "Table 4 shows a strong negative relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction (r=-.72, p=.03)". All tables and figures have a number and a descriptive heading. For example:

Table 4
The relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction.
Avoid the use of trivial tables or graphs. If a graph or table does not add new information (i.e., information not explained in the text), then don't include it.

Simply present the results. Do not attempt to explain the results in this chapter.

________________________________________

Chapter V - Conclusions and recommendations

Begin the final chapter with a few paragraphs summarizing what you did and found (i.e., the conclusions from Chapter IV).

Discussion
Discuss the findings. Do your findings support existing theories? Explain why you think you found what you did. Present plausible reasons why the results might have turned out the way they did.

Recommendations
Present recommendations based on your findings. Avoid the temptation to present recommendations based on your own beliefs or biases that are not specifically supported by your data. Recommendations fall into two categories. The first is recommendations to the study sponsor. What actions do you recommend they take based upon the data. The second is recommendations to other researchers. There are almost always ways that a study could be improved or refined. What would you change if you were to do your study over again? These are the recommendations to other researchers.

________________________________________
References

List references in APA format alphabetically by author's last name

________________________________________
Appendix

Include a copy of any actual instruments. If used, include a copy of the informed consent form.

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How to Write a Student Report

Students begin writing reports as early as middle school. A student report can be for a science project or to summarize a book read during the summer reading program. Several basic concepts should be followed to write a student report regardless of topic or class. Following the basic concepts to write a student report will help you be successful and earn better grades.

Instructions:

1. Step1
   Find out what topic will be covered in the student report. If you do not understand what the topic is about, the report will not be a success. Research, study, and understand the topic as much as possible before beginning the task.
   
2. Step2
   Write an outline of the basic information from the topic. Review the outline. Number the information in order of importance. This will help you organize the information before beginning the actual report.
   
3. Step3
   Write an introduction to the student report. The introduction lets the reader know what topic will be discussed. A thesis sentence provides the reader with what information they will learn. A solid introductory paragraph tells the reader the basic concepts and ideas that will be discussed in the report.
   
4. Step4
   Write a closing paragraph for the student report. In the closing paragraph, restate the basic concepts and ideas. Provide readers with a conclusion as to why the information they learned in the student report was important. Tell readers what they should have learned from reading the report.
   
5. Step5
   Write the body of the student report. Use one or two paragraphs to support each concept introduced in the introductory paragraph and summarized in the closing paragraph.
   
6. Step6
   Fill in transitional sentences between the paragraphs to make the report flow. Use a word or phrase from the last sentence of the preceding paragraph in the following paragraph to improve flow.
   
7. Step7
   Set the student report aside for a few hours. Read the student report out loud. Fill in any areas that are awkward or need more explanation.
   
8. Step8
   Check the student report for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Correct any mistakes.
   
9. Step9
   Read the student report one final time. Make any required changes. Repeat this step until you are happy with how the report is written.
   
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   Sharath
   
   www.a4alva.wordpress.com 
   
   
   

How to Write a Project Report

Project reports communicate a project's background, its objectives, the methods used to achieve the objectives and the results of these efforts. The writer may also discuss important aspects of the project and draw certain conclusions. Like most reports, the information should be formatted with headings, clearly communicated and well supported. There are countless ways to write a project report. The steps below represent one method.

Things You'll Need:

•  Project details
  
•  Background information
  
•  Supporting information
  
•  Sources of information
  

Instructions:

Step 1. Create a title or cover page, followed by a table of contents and an abstract (see Step 9). The project report's title should convey the area and scope of the project.

Step 2. Consider your reader, his or her knowledge of your project and its subject. If your project was, for example, scientific but your reader is not a scientist, consider using less technical language than if he were.

Step 3. Describe the project's scope, its objective and the main result(s) in the Introduction. You may include what you personally contributed to the project as well.

Step 4. Tell the reader about the research behind the project in a Background section, if too extensive to include in the Introduction.

Step 5. Describe the methods you used during the project to accomplish the stated objectives in a Methods/Procedures section. Don't forget to used the past tense, as these actions have already been taken.

Step 6. Present the results of the project, which may not be the intended results. Use a Results section heading. Depending on your reader and what your project entailed, you may want to discuss the results by explaining what they show, analyzing uncertainties, noting trends, comparing the results with known theories or with the expected results, evaluating limitations of the project, detailing the possibilities of faulty interpretation or simply discussing assumptions about the results.

Step 7. Conclude by summarizing, once again, the project report's content and by suggesting the implications of the project's results. Because your reader is familiar with your work, you may use project-specific terms and reference names of people and places under the Conclusion heading.

Step 8. Propose, under a Recommendations heading, suggestions based on the conclusions outlined earlier. Describe actions you think should be taken because of the project's results or additional work that you think is needed to gain more knowledge about the subject.

Step 9. Write the report abstract, which is only a couple of paragraphs long and which summarizes, like the conclusion, the report's contents. The abstract is actually the first section of the report, so keep it more general than the conclusion. Because the abstract is such a comprehensive summary, it is most easily written last.

Step 10. Include references and appendices such as charts, graphs, photos or additional information at the end of the report.

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Sharath

www.a4alva.wordpress.com

Writing a Dessertation

Writing a Dessertation

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Writing a Dessertation

 Max Weber

Writing A Dissertation

For every student, whether he is an undergraduate or graduate it is imperative, almost indispensable to turn to the help of other persons, to use their knowledge, skills and experience.

These complicated graduate studies. by Chris Wells

Certainly, if you are working on your dissertation, it might be advisable to do the same. This dissertation help program should comprise several elements. The first element is the organizing of your dissertation. Start thinking how your project can be organized, what it should comprise, what structure should it have. At this stage you may turn to the writing guides (online guides and printed ones). They contain useful, tips and advices on the method of completion of your dissertation.

You should design your own program of the dissertation help. Scroll through them, study them thoroughly and decide what method fits best your instruction and your requirements. Despite the fact that many of these advices are really useful ones and dissertation projects have many features in common, yet nevertheless do not forget that different institutions have their own , individual requirements to the scope of the dissertation, the method of the research and format in which the dissertation should be presented. That is why it is indispensable to consult your advisor during this process, and online guides should be used as the guide only, not as the established and accepted way of presenting of your information.

The second element is to make acquaintance with other dissertations. Try to study them and answer the following questions: Why they have been written this way? Why this approach has been used?  How this project has been researched? Once you have answered these question it might be easier for you to start organizing and designing your own dissertation project- you should start working on your dissertation writing process. Dissertation writing differs in many respects from the writing of other writing assignments, in term of its scope, its importance and general requirements set by educational institutions. Besides the thorough investigation of the problem, one should produce the thesis-indispensable elements of dissertation writing. The thesis should comprise major points of your contention as well as provide sufficient information on why the problem chosen is worth the researching and what question have been answered by your research.

Do not forget that unlike in other writing assignments, your research should contribute to the existing knowledge of the problem and should also have some practical implications for the science in general and the subject you research in particular. The best way during this process is to stick to the plan devised by you and your advisor and write and complete the paper according to it. Whatever other guides might propose you should always consult your advisor in order to produce the writing assignments according to the instructions and requirements set by your educational institution.

Chris Wells is a senior editor at DissertationsExperts.com - Thesis writing service. He holds a PhD in Science and for now his major professional areas of interest include teaching at universities and consulting postgraduate students who find difficulty in completing their written assignments starting from essay writing to dissertation writing. His competent dissertation help has assisted many postgraduates to become recognized scholars.

Article Tags: Dissertation Writing, Dissertation Help, Should Comprise, Writing Assignments

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